Cotranslational recruitment of ribosomes in protocells recreates a translocon-independent mechanism of proteorhodopsin biogenesis.

The emergence of lipid membranes and embedded proteins was essential for the evolution of cells. Translocon complexes mediate cotranslational recruitment and membrane insertion of nascent proteins, but they already contain membrane-integral proteins. Therefore, a simpler mechanism must exist, enabling spontaneous membrane integration while preventing aggregation of unchaperoned protein in the aqueous phase. Here, we used giant unilamellar vesicles encapsulating minimal translation components to systematically interrogate the requirements for insertion of the model protein proteorhodopsin (PR) - a structurally ubiquitous membrane protein. We show that the N-terminal hydrophobic domain of PR is both necessary and sufficient for cotranslational recruitment of ribosomes to the membrane and subsequent membrane insertion of PR. Insertion of N-terminally truncated PR was restored by artificially attaching ribosomes to the membrane. Our findings offer a self-sufficient protein-inherent mechanism as a possible explanation for effective membrane protein biogenesis in a "pretranslocon" era, and they offer new opportunities for generating artificial cells.

The mitochondrial intermembrane space: the most constricted mitochondrial sub-compartment with the largest variety of protein import pathways.

The mitochondrial intermembrane space (IMS) is the most constricted sub-mitochondrial compartment, housing only about 5% of the mitochondrial proteome, and yet is endowed with the largest variability of protein import mechanisms. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge of the major IMS import pathway based on the oxidative protein folding pathway and discuss the stunning variability of other IMS protein import pathways. As IMS-localized proteins only have to cross the outer mitochondrial membrane, they do not require energy sources like ATP hydrolysis in the mitochondrial matrix or the inner membrane electrochemical potential which are critical for import into the matrix or insertion into the inner membrane. We also explore several atypical IMS import pathways that are still not very well understood and are guided by poorly defined or completely unknown targeting peptides. Importantly, many of the IMS proteins are linked to several human diseases, and it is therefore crucial to understand how they reach their normal site of function in the IMS. In the final part of this review, we discuss current understanding of how such IMS protein underpin a large spectrum of human disorders.

Targeting and Insertion of Membrane Proteins in Mitochondria.

Mitochondrial membrane proteins play an essential role in all major mitochondrial functions. The respiratory complexes of the inner membrane are key for the generation of energy. The carrier proteins for the influx/efflux of essential metabolites to/from the matrix. Many other inner membrane proteins play critical roles in the import and processing of nuclear encoded proteins (∼99% of all mitochondrial proteins). The outer membrane provides another lipidic barrier to nuclear-encoded protein translocation and is home to many proteins involved in the import process, maintenance of ionic balance, as well as the assembly of outer membrane components. While many aspects of the import and assembly pathways of mitochondrial membrane proteins have been elucidated, many open questions remain, especially surrounding the assembly of the respiratory complexes where certain highly hydrophobic subunits are encoded by the mitochondrial DNA and synthesised and inserted into the membrane from the matrix side. This review will examine the various assembly pathways for inner and outer mitochondrial membrane proteins while discussing the most recent structural and biochemical data examining the biogenesis process.

Cryptic variation in RNA-directed DNA-methylation controls lateral root development when auxin signalling is perturbed.

Maintaining the right balance between plasticity and robustness in biological systems is important to allow adaptation while maintaining essential functions. Developmental plasticity of plant root systems has been the subject of intensive research, but the mechanisms underpinning robustness remain unclear. Here, we show that potassium deficiency inhibits lateral root organogenesis by delaying early stages in the formation of lateral root primordia. However, the severity of the symptoms arising from this perturbation varies within a natural population of Arabidopsis and is associated with the genetic variation in CLSY1, a key component of the RNA-directed DNA-methylation machinery. Mechanistically, CLSY1 mediates the transcriptional repression of a negative regulator of root branching, IAA27, and promotes lateral root development when the auxin-dependent proteolysis pathway fails. Our study identifies DNA-methylation-mediated transcriptional repression as a backup system for post-translational protein degradation which ensures robust development and performance of plants in a challenging environment.